Lesson Plan
Takeoffs: Normal Takeoff
Purpose
The takeoff and initial climb are relatively short phases required for every flight. However, they have a high accident rate. About twenty percent of all general aviation (GA) accidents occur during takeoff and departure climbs.
Becoming proficient, and applying the correct techniques and principles, will help pilots reduce their susceptibility to mishaps during takeoffs and climbs.
Elements
Continuous maneuver with three components: The takeoff and climb is one continuous maneuver. However, it can be divided into three separate steps for discussion:
- Takeoff roll (ground roll)
- Lift-off
- Initial climb
Takeoff roll: The takeoff roll or ground roll is the portion of the takeoff procedure during which the airplane is accelerated from a standstill to an airspeed that provides sufficient lift for it to become airborne.
Lift-off: This is when the wings are lifting the weight of the airplane off the surface.
- Typically, this happens after the pilot rotates the nose up to increase the angle of attack (AOA).
Initial climb: This begins when the airplane leaves the surface and a climb pitch attitude has been established.
- This is complete when the airplane has reached a safe maneuvering altitude or an en route climb has been established.
Performance charts: Takeoff performance charts in the POH/AFM should be consulted prior to takeoff.
- This will predict performance and establish if if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location.
- High density altitude is a common concern, since this will reduce engine and propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls, and decrease climb performance.
Wake turbulence: Due to the risk of wake turbulence, it is not recommended to take off immediately behind another aircraft.
- This is especially true if departing after large transport airplanes, which create large wingtip vortices.
- Wake turbulence can be avoided by remaining clear of the other aircraft's flightpath.
- It also can be avoided by rotating prior to the point at which the preceding aircraft rotated.
Use of headwind: Normal takeoff is done with the airplane is headed into the wind.
- Since the airplane depends on airspeed, a headwind provides some of that airspeed even before the airplane begins to accelerate into the wind.
- A headwind also decreases the ground speed necessary to achieve flying speed, permitting the use of shorter runways while reducing wear and stress on the landing gear and tires.
- If a tailwind takeoff is necessary, consult performance takeoff charts in the POH/AFM to confirm there is sufficient performance and runway length.
Torque effects: On takeoff, an abrupt application of power may cause the airplane to yaw sharply to the left because of the torque effects of the engine and propeller
Propeller forces and wind: As the airplane gains speed, rudder pressure is needed to correct for propeller forces and any wind.
Elevator trim: If the elevator is correctly trimmed, the elevator control tends to assume a neutral position. Aileron controls should be banked into any crosswind.
Control effectiveness increases with airspeed: As airspeed increases, airflow increases over the airplane's control surfaces.
- Tail surfaces become effective first, due to propeller slipstream.
- Smaller rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.
- The feel of resistance to the airplane controls indicates that the airplane has increasing controllability.
Risk of over-controlling: Student pilots may tend to move the controls through wide ranges, seeking the pressures that are familiar and expected. This can result in overcontrolling the airplane. The flight instructor must help the student learn proper response to control actions and airplane reactions
- The instructor should always stress using the proper outside reference to judge airplane motion.
- Have the student pilot follow through lightly on the controls, feel for resistance.
- Point out the outside references that provide the clues for how much control movement is needed and how the pressure and response changes as airspeed increases
Minimum pitch adjustments: The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speed for the best rate of climb (Vy).
Rotation: When all the flight controls become effective during the takeoff roll in a nose-wheel type airplane, the pilot should gradually apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nosewheel slightly off the runway, thus establishing the takeoff or lift-off attitude.
- This is the "rotation" (around the airplane's lateral axis) for lift-off and climb.
- This happens at Vr, or rotation, airspeed.
- Note that each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for normal lift-off.
Excessive back-elevator: Flight instructors should be aware that initially, the student pilot may have a tendency to hold excessive back-elevator pressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitch-up.
- The pitch attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to Vy speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and memorized by the student.
Maintain pitch attitude with wings level, coordinated flight: As the airplane lifts off the surface, the pitch attitude to hold the climb airspeed should be held with elevator control and trimmed to maintain that pitch attitude without excessive control pressures.
- The wings should be leveled after lift-off.
- Rudder should be used to ensure coordinated flight and maintain the track of the airplane along the runway centerline.
Strong, gusty winds: During takeoffs in strong, gusty winds, the pilot should allow the airplane to stay on the ground longer to attain more speed.
- Takeoff at the normal speed may result in a lack of positive control (or a stall) when the airplane encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty winds or other turbulent air currents.
Accelerate to Vy: Upon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approximately the pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to Vy, which is the airspeed at which the airplane gains the most altitude in the shortest period of time.
Takeoff power until 500 AGL: Takeoff power be maintained until reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet AGL.
Do not fixate on airspeed — scan outside: The pilot should not fixate on the airspeed indicator when making pitch changes, and instead should continue to scan outside to adjust the airplane's attitude in relation to the horizon.
- The airspeed indicator should be used only as a check to determine if the climb attitude is correct.
- Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed.
Effect of density altitude: The climb pitch will be lower when the airplane is heavily loaded, or when power is limited by density altitude.
Maintain runway alignment: During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff path remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting into obstructions or into the path of another aircraft that may be taking off from a parallel runway.
- A flight instructor should help the student identify two points inline ahead of the runway to use as a tracking reference.
Solo students: Student pilots nearing the solo stage of flight training should understand that the airplane's takeoff performance will be much different when the instructor is not in the airplane.
- Due to decreased load, the airplane will become airborne earlier and climb more rapidly.
- The pitch attitude may differ due to decreased weight. The flight controls may seem more sensitive
Procedure
- Complete before-takeoff checklist
- Taxi to centerline
- Apply right rudder
- Apply full throttle
- Confirm airspeed is alive
- Maintain centerline with rudder
- Lift nosewheel at rotation speed (Vr)
- Climb at Vy with visual references
- Maintain takeoff power until at least 500 AGL
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs include:
- Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
- Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.
- Abrupt use of the throttle.
- Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power.
- Failure to anticipate the airplane's left turning tendency on initial acceleration.
- Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
- Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than developing an understanding of visual references and tracking clues of airplane airspeed and controllability during acceleration and lift-off.
- Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
- Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
- Overcontrol of elevators during initial climb-out and lack of elevator trimming.
- Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane (pitch attitude and direction), causing a wing (usually the left) to drop immediately after lift-off.
- Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY) or desired climb airspeed.
- Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in "chasing" the airspeed indicator.
Completion Standards
Private Pilot Airmen Certification Standards (ACS)
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Commercial Pilot & CFI Airmen Certification Standards (ACS)
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More Details
More details are available in the Airplane Flying Handbook
Lesson Plan Checklist
Normal Takeoff