Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Chapter 1: Introduction To Flying

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From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of birds and longed to imitate them. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci filled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed flying machines, but most of his ideas were flawed because he clung to the idea of birdlike wings.

In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted by Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes. But the ability to control speed and direction eluded balloonists. Kites used by the Chinese for aerial observation, to test winds for sailing, as a signaling device, and as a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air. Sir George Cayley, the "Father of Aerial Navigation," discovered the basic principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is founded; built what is recognized as the first successful flying model; and tested the first full-size man-carrying airplane. The Wright Brothers experimented for four years with kites, their own homemade wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane, which first flew at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.

During the early years of manned flight, individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Airmail was originally delivered by Army pilots, who used the routes for cross-country training. In 1918, the United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees. Eventually, the Transcontinental Mail Route spanned from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612 miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way.

The 1926 Air Commerce Act served as the legislative cornerstone for aviation within the United States. Under this act, the Secretary of Commerce could issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, license pilots, certificate aircraft, establish airways, and operate and maintain aids to air navigation.

The Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department took over the construction and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways. Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles apart, standard beacon towers were 51 feet high and topped with a powerful rotating light. In 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities of operating three Air Traffic Control centers, which were originally established and operated by airlines.

The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established the newly created Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), which was given complete control of the common civil-military system of air navigation and ATC. To meet the challenge of traffic growth, the FAA unveiled the National Airspace System (NAS) Plan in January 1982. The new plan called for more advanced systems for en route and terminal ATC, modernized flight service stations, and improvements in ground-to-air surveillance and communication.

The FAA establishes safety standards for civil aviation under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) — specifically, under Title 14, "Aeronautics and Space," which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation. Part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots. Part 91 provides guidance in the areas of flight rules. Part 43 covers aircraft maintenance.

The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the official guide to basic flight information and A TC procedures. FAA Handbooks are developed to provide specific information about a particular topic that enhances training or understanding.

Aircraft flight manuals — commonly called Pilot Operating Handbooks (POH) — are developed by airplane manufacturers, specific to a particular make and model aircraft by serial number, and approved by the FAA.

An Advisory Circular (AC) is an informational document that the FAA wants to distribute to the aviation community. They are to be used for information only and are not regulations.

The FAA publishes and regularly updates aviation charts, as well as a Chart Supplement book.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs), are time-critical aeronautical information either temporary in nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications.

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Aircraft

The FAA differentiates aircraft by their characteristics and physical properties. These include but are not limited to:

• An airplane is an engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft that is heavier than air.
• A glider is a heavier-than-air aircraft that does not depend principally on an engine.
• An airship is an engine-driven lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered.
• A balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft that is not engine driven, and that sustains flight through the use of either gas buoyancy or an airborne heater.
• A rotorcraft is a heavier-than-air aircraft that depends principally for its support in flight on the lift generated by one or more rotors. This includes both helicopters and gyroplanes.

The FAA differentiates aircraft by weight:

• A large aircraft is more than 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff weight.
• A small aircraft is 12,500 pounds or less maximum certificated takeoff weight.
• A Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) meets a definition set out in 14 CFR 1.1.

Aircraft are grouped by category, class, and type. These terms are used for both the certification of aircraft and pilots, with different definitions for both.

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Pilot Certifications

Each type of pilot's certificate has privileges and limitations that are inherent within the certificate itself. Endorsements, a form of authorization, are written to establish that the certificate holder has received training in specific skill areas.

• Student pilots are being trained by an instructor pilot for their first full certificates (Sport, Recreational, or Private). They are permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances.
• Sport pilots may operate as pilot in command (PIC) of a light-sport aircraft, carry one passenger, share expenses, and fly during the daytime under Visual Flight Rules (VFR).
• Recreational pilots cannot carry more than one passenger, travel more than 50 nautical miles from the point of departure, fly at night, or operate in airspace where ATC communication is required. Additionally, they may not operate an aircraft that is certificated for more than four occupants or has more than one engine.
• Private pilots are permitted to command any aircraft (subject to appropriate ratings) for any noncommercial purpose, with almost unlimited authority to fly under VFR. Passengers may be carried, and expenses can be shared pro rata. Flight in furtherance of a business is permitted. However a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot.
• A Commercial pilot may be compensated for flying, and s/he can take a job as a pilot. They are required to obtain an endorsement to operate a complex airplane, which has retractable landing gear, movable flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller. Commercial pilots without an instrument rating are restricted to daytime flight within 50 NM when flying for hire.
• An Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) may serve as Pilot in Command (PIC) or Second in Command (SIC) of scheduled airline operations. The minimum pilot experience is 1,500 hours of flight time.

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Medical Certifications

(Note: This content is adapted from the Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 17, "Aeromedical Factors.").

Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. Sport pilots may use a valid state driver's license in place of a medical certificate. Pilots who have a medical certificate may not act as Pilot in Command (PIC) or a required crew-member if they know of any medical condition that would make them unable to perform their duties.

There are three classes of medical certificates, which are obtained from an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME).

• A third-class medical certificate is required for a private or recreational pilot certificate. It is valid for five (5) years for those individuals who have not reached the age of 40; otherwise it is valid for two (2) years.

• If working professionally, commercial pilots requires at least a second-class medical certificate, which is valid for one (1) year.
• First-class medical certificates are required for Airline Transport Pilots. They are valid for one (1) year if the airman is 40 or younger. For airmen 40 and older, certificates are valid for six (6) months.

The FAA medical standards, 14 CFR part 67, specify fifteen medical conditions that are considered disqualifying by "history or clinical diagnosis:"

• Diabetes mellitus requiring oral hypoglycemic medication or insulin
• Angina pectoris
• Coronary heart disease that has been treated or, if untreated, that has been symptomatic or clinically significant
• Myocardial infarction
• Cardiac valve replacement
• Permanent cardiac pacemaker
• Heart replacement
• Psychosis
• Bipolar disorder
• Personality disorder that is severe enough to have repeatedly manifested itself by overt acts
• Substance dependence (including alcohol)
• Substance abuse
• Epilepsy
• Disturbance of consciousness and without satisfactory explanation of cause
• Transient loss of control of nervous system function(s) without satisfactory explanation of cause

There are many other medical conditions that fall into the General Medical Condition section of the regulations that are considered by the FAA to be disqualifying, even though they are not stated in the regulations. This includes cancer, kidney stones, neurologic and neuromuscular conditions, and certain blood disorders,

If any of these conditions has been diagnosed and treated, an airman may only be issued a medical certificate through a process called Special Issuance Authorization (14 CFR part 67, section 67.401). This is a discretionary issuance by the FAA Federal Air Surgeon and requires satisfactory completion of special testing.

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Private Pilot: Airplane Single Engine Rating (61.109)

For an airplane single-engine rating. Except as provided in paragraph (k) of this section, a person who applies for a private pilot certificate with an airplane category and single-engine class rating must log at least 40 hours of flight time that includes at least 20 hours of flight training from an authorized instructor and 10 hours of solo flight training in the areas of operation listed in § 61.107(b)(1) of this part, and the training must include at least:

Dual: 20 hours minimum of flight training with an instructor on the Private Pilot areas of operation including:

• 3 hours of cross country flight training in a single engine airplane;
• 3 hours of night flight training in a single engine airplane, that includes at least:
      a) 1 cross country flight of over 100 nm total distance; and
      b) 10 T/O's and 10 landings to a full stop with each involving a flight in the traffic pattern at an airport.
• 3 hours of flight training by reference to instruments in a single engine airplane; and
• 3 hours of flight training in a single engine airplane within the 60 days prior to the practical test.

Solo: 10 hours minimum of solo flying in a single engine airplane on the Private Pilot areas of operation including:

• 5 hours of solo cross country flying;
• 1 solo cross country flight of at least 150nm total distance with full stop landings at 3 points and one segment of at least 50nm between takeoff and landings; and
• 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower.

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"Cross Country" (61.1)

14 CFR 61.1 provides that "cross-country time" means:

(ii) For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience requirements (except for a rotorcraft category rating), for a private pilot certificate (except for a powered parachute category rating), a commercial pilot certificate, or an instrument rating, or for the purpose of exercising recreational pilot privileges (except in a rotorcraft) under §61.101(c), time acquired during a flight:

(A) Conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
(B) That includes a point of landing that was at least a straight-line distance of more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure; and
(C) That involves the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or other navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.

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Commercial Pilot & Flight Instructor Test Questions